# Gaussian Process¶

Limbo relies on our C++-11 implementation of Gaussian processes (See Gaussian Process for a short introduction ) which can be useful by itself. This tutorial explains how to create and use a Gaussian Process (GP).

## Data¶

We assume that our samples are in a vector called samples and that our observations are in a vector called observations. Please note that the type of both observations and samples is Eigen::VectorXd (in this example, they are 1-D vectors).

  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11  // our data (1-D inputs, 1-D outputs) std::vector samples = { tools::make_vector(0), tools::make_vector(0.25), tools::make_vector(0.5), tools::make_vector(1.0)}; std::vector observations = { tools::make_vector(-1.0), tools::make_vector(2.0), tools::make_vector(1.0), tools::make_vector(3.0)}; 

## Basic usage¶

We first create a basic GP with an Exponential kernel (kernel::Exp<Params>) and a mean function equals to the mean of the obsevations (mean::Data<Params>). The Exp kernel needs a few parameters to be defined in a Params structure:

 1 2 3 4  struct kernel_exp { BO_PARAM(double, sigma_sq, 1.0); BO_PARAM(double, l, 0.15); }; 

The type of the GP is defined by the following lines:

 1 2 3 4  // the type of the GP using Kernel_t = kernel::Exp; using Mean_t = mean::Data; using GP_t = model::GP; 

To use the GP, we need :

• to instantiante a GP_t object
• to call the method compute().
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8  // 1-D inputs, 1-D outputs GP_t gp(1, 1); // noise is the same for all the samples (0.01) Eigen::VectorXd noises = Eigen::VectorXd::Ones(samples.size()) * 0.01; // compute the GP gp.compute(samples, observations, noises); 

Here we assume that the noise is the same for all samples and that it is equal to 0.01.

Querying the GP can be achieved in two different ways:

• gp.mu(v) and gp.sigma(v), which return the mean and the variance (sigma squared) for the input data point v
• std::tie(mu, sigma) = gp.query(v), which returns the mean and the variance at the same time.

The second approach is faster because some computations are the same for mu and sigma.

To visualize the predictions of the GP, we can query it for many points and record the predictions in a file:

  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12  // write the predicted data in a file (e.g. to be plotted) std::ofstream ofs("gp.dat"); for (int i = 0; i < 100; ++i) { Eigen::VectorXd v = tools::make_vector(i / 100.0); Eigen::VectorXd mu; double sigma; std::tie(mu, sigma) = gp.query(v); // an alternative (slower) is to query mu and sigma separately: // double mu = gp.mu(v)[0]; // mu() returns a 1-D vector // double s2 = gp.sigma(v); ofs << v.transpose() << " " << mu[0] << " " << sqrt(sigma) << std::endl; } 

## Hyper-parameter optimization¶

Most kernel functions have some parameters. It is common in the GP literature to set them by maximizing the log-likelihood of the data knowing the model (see Gaussian Process for a description of this concept).

In limbo, only a subset of the kernel functions can have their hyper-parameters optimized. The most common one is SquaredExpARD (Squared Exponential with Automatic Relevance Determination).

A new GP type is defined as follows:

 1 2 3  using Kernel2_t = kernel::SquaredExpARD; using Mean_t = mean::Data; using GP2_t = model::GP>; 

It uses the default values for the parameters of SquaredExpARD:

 1 2  struct kernel_squared_exp_ard : public defaults::kernel_squared_exp_ard { }; 

After calling the compute() method, the hyper-parameters can be optimized by calling the optimize_hyperparams() function. The GP does not need to be recomputed and we pass false for the last parameter in compute() as we do not need to compute the kernel matrix again (it will be recomputed in the hyper-parameters optimization).

 1 2  gp_ard.compute(samples, observations, noises, false); gp_ard.optimize_hyperparams(); 

We can have a look at the difference between the two GPs:

This plot is generated using matplotlib:

  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 import glob from pylab import * import brewer2mpl # brewer2mpl.get_map args: set name set type number of colors bmap = brewer2mpl.get_map('Set2', 'qualitative', 7) colors = bmap.mpl_colors params = { 'axes.labelsize': 8, 'text.fontsize': 8, 'legend.fontsize': 10, 'xtick.labelsize': 10, 'ytick.labelsize': 10, 'text.usetex': False, 'figure.figsize': [4.5, 4.5] } rcParams.update(params) gp = np.loadtxt('gp.dat') gp_ard = np.loadtxt('gp_ard.dat') data = np.loadtxt('data.dat') fig = figure() # no frame ax = fig.add_subplot(111) ax.fill_between(gp[:,0], gp[:,1] - gp[:,2], gp[:,1] + gp[:,2], alpha=0.25, linewidth=0, color=colors[0]) ax.fill_between(gp_ard[:,0], gp_ard[:,1] - gp_ard[:,2], gp_ard[:,1] + gp_ard[:,2], alpha=0.25, linewidth=0, color=colors[1]) ax.plot(gp[:,0], gp[:,1], linewidth=2, color=colors[0]) ax.plot(gp_ard[:,0], gp_ard[:,1], linewidth=2, linestyle='--', color=colors[1]) ax.plot(data[:,0], data[:, 1], 'o', color=colors[2]) legend = ax.legend(["GP/exp", "GP/expARD", 'Data'], loc=4); frame = legend.get_frame() frame.set_facecolor('1.0') frame.set_edgecolor('1.0') ax.set_xlim([-0.1, 1.1]) ax.spines['top'].set_visible(False) ax.spines['right'].set_visible(False) ax.spines['left'].set_visible(False) ax.get_xaxis().tick_bottom() ax.get_yaxis().tick_left() ax.tick_params(axis='x', direction='out') ax.tick_params(axis='y', length=0) for spine in ax.spines.values(): spine.set_position(('outward', 5)) ax.set_axisbelow(True) ax.grid(axis='y', color="0.9", linestyle='-', linewidth=1) fig.savefig('gp.png')